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Watercolor- Modern Watercolor Painting Concepts
But for centuries, the issue of the watercolor basically is that it cannot hold its colors for long.
It fades overtime fast, and so very few serious artists used the vehicle. Not anymore
The real development of modern watercolor painting as far as its preparation and commercial viability is concerned is a little more than a hundred years old. Too recent compared to most visual art mediums, resulting to the partiality of masters to use oils and acrylics in their works. Hence, watercolor paintings seldom succeed commercially. But watercolor is a very wonderful medium to work on let alone the most portable, very easy to maintain and always non-toxic. For centuries it remained in the background, never as popular but the demand has always been there.
Previous to the 1800's, artists using the medium by large, buys their pigments from the local apothecary and mixed their own colors. The 18th to the 19th century saw a rise in market in printing books where the usual vehicle of illustrators is watercolor. Consequently, there was also an increase in watercolor demand as it became fashionable during that period to use the medium particularly in the upper classes of society. And so manufacturers taking notice bring the production of watercolor to a different more commercially viable level.
Then, majority of the binder that is used in watercolors are plant carbohydrates. Likewise, the pigment is drawn to the paper through the paper's cellular components where it stays. This leaves the pigment exposed like pigments stranded in a sand paper, leaving powdery pigments to scatter when very dry thereby fading it fast. Today though Arabic gum is used as the principal binder together with improvements done to improve its light fastness.
The light fastness of watercolors are measured by its numerical rating and is printed at the packaging for identification. In fact, if an artist uses watercolors today with high light fastness rating and conduct the work in archival paper, the pigments will stick, the transparent brilliance that only watercolors could provide will remain, and the artwork will last longer than those done in either oil or acrylic.
Applications have also changed. While paintings utilize brush (including watercolor) as its primary tool, modern implements include the use of sponges, tissue papers, plastics, crayons, sprayers and other organic and non organic material to create a final artwork that is most possible with watercolor paintings.
Concepts have also changed as it relates to the use of the watercolor. The injunction that white and black paints are not to be used, instead only primary colors that are mixed either in the palette or directly into the painting is already of no relevance to modern watercolor painting concepts.
About the Author
Watercolor Websites have become a lot more than a hobby, I now have a very successful and stress free life by helping others build and own their own Website Businesses.
My ebook "Chewing Bread for Ducks" has become very popular with people who want their website on Page One on Google. (and other Search Engines of course).
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RIAA equalization - Villa - china Steel Structure Buildings
The RIAA curve
RIAA equalization is a form of preemphasis on recording, and deemphasis on playback. A record is cut with the low frequencies reduced and the high frequencies boosted, and on playback the opposite occurs. The result is a flat frequency response, but with noise such as hiss and clicks arising from the surface of the medium itself much attenuated. The other main benefit of the system is that low frequencies, which would otherwise cause the cutter to make large excursions when cutting a groove, are much reduced, so grooves are smaller and more can fit into a given surface area, yielding longer playback times. This also has the benefit of eliminating physical stresses on the playback stylus which might otherwise be hard to cope with, or cause unpleasant distortion.
A potential drawback of the system is that rumble from the playback turntable's drive mechanism is greatly amplified, which means that players have to be carefully designed to avoid this.
RIAA equalization is not a simple low-pass filter. It carefully defines transition points in three places - 75 s, 318 s and 3180 s, which correspond to 2122 Hz, 500 Hz and 50 Hz. Implementing this characteristic is not especially difficult, but more involved than a simple amplifier. Most hi-fi amplifiers have a built-in phono preamplifier with the RIAA characteristic, though it is often omitted in modern designs, due to the gradual obsolescence of vinyl records. A solution in this case is to purchase an outboard preamplifier with the RIAA equalization curve, which adapts a magnetic cartridge to a standard line-level input. Some modern turntables feature built-in preamplification to the RIAA standard. Special preamplifiers are also available for the various equalization curves used on pre-1954 records.
Digital audio editors often feature the ability to equalize audio samples using standard and custom equalization curves, removing the need for a dedicated hardware preamplifier when capturing audio with a computer. However, this can add an extra step in processing a sample, and may amplify audio quality issues of the sound card being used to capture the signal.
History
Origins of pre-emphasis
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Equalization practice for electrical recordings dates to the beginning of the art. In 1926 it was disclosed by Joseph P. Maxwell and Henry C. Harrison from Bell Telephone Laboratories that the recording pattern of the Western Electric "rubber line" magnetic disc cutter had a constant velocity characteristic. This meant that as frequency increased in the treble, recording amplitude decreased. Conversely, in the bass as frequency decreased, recording amplitude increased. Therefore, it was necessary to attenuate the bass frequencies below about 250 Hz, the bass turnover point, in the amplified microphone signal fed to the recording head. Otherwise, bass modulation became excessive and overcutting took place into the next record groove. When played back electrically with a magnetic pickup having a smooth response in the bass region, a complementary boost in amplitude at the bass turnover point was necessary. G. H. Miller in 1934 reported that when complementary boost at the turnover point was used in radio broadcasts of records, the reproduction was more realistic and many of the musical instruments stood out in their true form.
West in 1930 and later P. G. H. Voight (1940) showed that the early Wente-style condenser microphones contributed to a 4 to 6 dB midrange brilliance or pre-emphasis in the recording chain. This meant that the electrical recording characteristics of Western Electric licensees such as Columbia Records and Victor Talking Machine Company had a higher amplitude in the midrange region. Brilliance such as this compensated for dullness in many early magnetic pickups having drooping midrange and treble response. As a result, this practice was the empirical beginning of using pre-emphasis above 1,000 Hz in 78 and 33 1/3 rpm records, some 29 years before the RIAA curve.
Over the years a variety of record equalization practices emerged and there was no industry standard. For example, in Europe, for many years recordings required playback with a bass turnover setting of 250 to 300 Hz and a treble rolloff at 10,000 Hz ranging from 0 to -5 dB, or more. In the United States there were more varied practices and a tendency to use higher bass turnover frequencies, such as 500 Hz, as well as a greater treble rolloff like -8.5 dB, and more. The purpose was to record higher modulation levels on the record.
Standardization
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Evidence from the early technical literature concerning electrical recording suggests that it was not until the 1942-1949 period that there were serious efforts to standardize recording characteristics within an industry. Before this time, electrical recording technology from company to company was considered a proprietary art all the way back to the 1925 Western Electric licensed method first used by Columbia and Victor. For example, what Brunswick-Balke-Collender (Brunswick Corporation) did was different from the practices of Victor.
Broadcasters were faced with having to adapt daily to the varied recording characteristics of many sources: various makers of "home recordings" readily available to the public, European recordings, lateral cut transcriptions, and vertical cut transcriptions. Efforts were started in 1942 to standardize within the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB), later known as the National Association of Radio and Television Broadcasters (NARTB). The NAB, among other items, issued recording standards in 1949 for laterally and vertically cut records, principally transcriptions. A number of 78 rpm record producers as well as early LP makers also cut their records to the NAB/NARTB lateral standard.
The lateral cut NAB curve was remarkably similar to the NBC Orthacoustic curve which evolved from practices within the National Broadcasting Company since the mid-1930s. Empirically, and not by any formula, it was learned that the bass end of the audio spectrum below 100 Hz could be boosted somewhat to override system hum and turntable rumble noises. Likewise at the treble end beginning at 1,000 Hz, if audio frequencies were boosted by 16 dB at 10,000 Hz the delicate sibilant sounds of speech and high overtones of musical instruments could survive the noise level of cellulose acetate, lacquer/aluminum, and vinyl disc media. When the record was played back using a complementary inverse curve (de-emphasis), signal to noise ratio was improved and the programming sounded more lifelike.
In a related area, around 1940 treble pre-emphasis similar to that used in the NBC Orthacoustic recording curve was first employed by Edwin Howard Armstrong in his system of Frequency Modulation (FM) radio broadcasting. FM radio receivers using Armstrong circuits and treble de-emphasis would render high quality wide-range audio output with low noise levels.
When the Columbia LP was released in June 1948, the developers subsequently published technical information about the 33 1/3 rpm, microgroove, long playing record. Columbia disclosed a recording characteristic showing that it was like the NAB curve in the treble, but had more bass boost or pre-emphasis below 150 Hz. The authors disclosed electrical network characteristics for the Columbia LP curve. This was the first such curve based on formulae.
In 1951 at the beginning of the post-World War II high fidelity (hi-fi) popularity, the Audio Engineering Society (AES) developed a standard playback curve. This was intended for use by hi-fi amplifier manufacturers. If records were engineered to sound good on hi-fi amplifiers using the AES curve, this would be a worthy goal towards standardization. This curve was defined by the time constants of audio filters and had a bass turnover of 400 Hz and a 10,000 Hz rolloff of -12 dB.
RCA Victor and Columbia were in a "market war" concerning which recorded format was going to win: the Columbia LP versus the RCA Victor 45 rpm disc (released in February 1949). Besides also being a battle of disc size and record speed, there was a technical difference in the recording characteristics. RCA Victor was using "New Orthophonic" whereas Columbia was using the LP curve.
Ultimately the New Orthophonic curve was disclosed in a publication by R. C. Moyer of RCA Victor in 1953. He traced RCA Victor characteristics back to the Western Electric "rubber line" recorder in 1925 up to the early 1950s laying claim to long-held recording practices and reasons for major changes in the intervening years. The RCA Victor New Orthophonic curve was within the tolerances for the NAB/NARTB, Columbia LP, and AES curves. It eventually became the technical predecessor to the RIAA curve.
It is generally thought that by the time of the stereo LP in 1958, the RIAA curve, identical to the RCA Victor New Orthophonic curve, became standard throughout the national and international record markets.
Non-Standardization
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Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2009)
As the RIAA curve was essentially an American standard, it had little impact outside of the USA. The RIAA equalization only became a major international standard by the late 1970s when European recording labels slowly and finally began to adopt the RIAA equalization. It was even later when some Asian recording labels adopted the RIAA standard.
As late as 1989, many Eastern European recording labels and Russian recording labels such as Melodiya were still using their own CCIR equalization. Hence the RIAA curve only truly become a global standardization not until the late 1980s.
Further, even after officially agreeing to implement the RIAA equalization curve, many recording labels continued to use their own proprietary equalization even well into the 1970s. Columbia is one such prominent example in the USA, as are Decca, Teldec and Deutsche Grammophon in Europe. To further cloud the picture, some labels even saw different equalization curves arise from differently located pressing plants.
To further complicate matters, identical equalization curves existed but were named differently by different recording labels. Some small recording labels advertised their special curves which were generic Columbia/RCA Orthophonic curves.
Other non-standard equalizations commonly used after 1954:
Columbia EQ - mostly used by the Columbia group: Columbia, Epic, EMI (for records originally issued under Columbia)
Decca (FFSS) EQ - mostly used by European record labels: Decca, London, Argo, Philips, PolyGram, Deutsche Grammophon, Archiv, NAB
CCIR 56 EQ - mostly used by German, Eastern European and Russian record labels: Deutsche Grammophon, Melodiya, Amiga, Eterna
IEC RIAA curve
An improved version of the curve was proposed to the International Electrotechnical Commission with an extra high-pass filter at 20 Hz (7950 s). The justification was that DC coupling was becoming more common, which meant that turntable rumble would become a greater problem. However, the proposal did not achieve traction, as manufacturers considered that turntables, arm and cartridge combinations should be of sufficient quality for the problem not to arise.
Enhanced RIAA (eRIAA) curve
The Enhanced RIAA equalization curve for playback of vinyl records.
As the frequency response of any record cutting lathe will drop at a higher frequency and become less efficient, hence a lower level of high frequency detail was cut into the LP at the time of manufacture.
In other words, the cutter of the records will beyond a certain point not be able to get higher frequencies on the record with an extra amplification of 6dB/octave. Record cutter manuals seem to specify 50kHz as a roll-off value. As a result, there must be a fourth timeconstant at 50 kHz that defines how the RIAA curve should flatten out.
The Enhanced RIAA curve is an amendment of the standard RIAA curve that approximates closely the actual frequency response of the cutting system. It compensates for this particular roll-off and brings the missing level of high frequency detail back into the recording.
References
Notes
^ Copeland, Peter (Sep 2008). MANUAL OF ANALOGUE SOUND RESTORATION TECHNIQUES p.148. London: The British Library. ISBN n/a. http://www.bl.uk/reshelp/findhelprestype/sound/anaudio/analoguesoundrestoration.pdf.
Bibliography
Powell, James R., Jr. The Audiophile's Technical Guide to 78 RPM, Transcription, and Microgroove Recordings. 1992; Gramophone Adventures, Portage, MI. ISBN 0-9634921-2-8
Powell, James R., Jr. Broadcast Transcription Discs. 2001; Gramophone Adventures, Portage, MI. ISBN 0-9634921-4-4
Powell, James R., Jr. and Randall G. Stehle. Playback Equalizer Settings for 78 RPM Recordings. Second Edition. 1993, 2001; Gramophone Adventures, Portage, MI. ISBN 0-9634921-3-6
External links
Description and diagrams of RIAA equalization curve
Sample passive filter designs
Categories: Recording Industry Association of America | Audio engineering | Recorded music | Audio storageHidden categories: Articles needing additional references from December 2009 | All articles needing additional references | Articles needing additional references from October 2009
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